Amato Lusitano on Fagaceae

Hugo Ribeiro, IOS member from Portugal, shared an article that he thought would be of interest to the IOS community: “From the oak to the chestnut: uses and medicinal properties of Fagaceae in the Enarrationes of Amato Lusitano” by Emília Oliveira.¹ It discusses commentary written by a 16^th century Portuguese humanist, Amato Lusitano, on a work by Dioscorides, a 1^st century Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist. The parts that interest us are of course the ones that deal with oaks and acorns (and oaks' cousins in the Fagaceae). In order to make sense of this, it is best to start with the original text by Dioscorides before looking at Amato Lusitano’s commentary.

Discorides' De Materia Medica

Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40–90 AD) is best known for a five-volume book written in Greek, Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς (Perì hylēs íatrikēs), known in Western Europe in the Latin version, De materia medica (“On Medical Matters”), which became the precursor to all modern pharmacopeias, or books describing medical preparations. Certain sections of De materia medica include mentions of oaks. Here is a selection (Chapters 142-144 of Book 1), shown in the original ancient Greek, a Latin translation,² then a modern English translation by T.A. Osbaldeston and R.P.A. Wood.³

Chapter 142
Ancient Greek

Latin translation

English translation
Drys (generic name for oaks in ancient Greek)

Each part of the oak is astringent, but the film which lies between the bark and the stock (similar to that under the cup of the acorn) is most therapeutic for the bowels. A decoction of this is given for coeliac [intestinal complaints], dysentery, and to blood-spitters, and pounded into small pieces it is put into suppositories for women troubled with excessive discharges of the womb.

Chapter 143
Ancient Greek

Latin translation

English translation
Balanoi (acorns)

Acorns produce the same effects as they are also diuretic. Eaten as meat they cause headaches and are wind-inducing, but also help poisonous bites. A decoction of them and their bark (taken as a drink with cows' milk) helps poisoning. The unripe ones pounded into small pieces and applied as a poultice relieve inflammation. With salted swines’ grease they are good for malignant calluses and injurious ulcers. Those of the ilex [holly oak—Quercus ilex] have greater strength than those of the oak.

Chapter 144
Ancient Greek

Latin translation

English translation
Phegos and Prinos (Quercus aegilops (=Q. macrolepis) and Q. ilex)

Fagus and prinus, both a kind of oak, have similar effects, and the bark of the root of prinus boiled in water until it becomes tender and rotten and applied for a whole night dyes the hair black. It is first made clean with Cimolian earth [soft hydrous aluminum silicate]. The leaves of all of them bruised and pounded into small pieces help edema, and strengthen feeble parts.

Amato Lusitano's Enarrationes

Amato Lusitano (1511–1568), whose real name was João Rodrigues de Castelo Branco, was a Portuguese Jewish physician. He is said to have discovered the function of the valves in the circulation of the blood. He was a descendant of a Marrano family (Jews converted to Christianity) called Habib, and was brought up in the Jewish faith. Habib means “beloved” in Arabic and so his name was translated to “Amato” (=”beloved” in Latin). “Lusitano” means "Portuguese" in Latin.⁴ In 1553 he published a commentary on Dioscorides’ De materica medica, under the title In Dioscoridis Anarzabei De Materia Medica libros quinque Enarrationes Eruditissimae (Five Most Erudite Narrations on De Materia Medica by Dioscorides of Anazarbus). The enarrationes (narrations) 131–133 deal with Dioscorides’s mentions of Fagaceae.

The text is given in Latin and English below, with comments based in part on Emília Oliveira's article. Amato begins by explaining that when Dioscorides uses the word δρῦς (drys) he is referring to all oaks, not a certain species. This is relevant in Southern Europe, where in folk taxonomy the genus concept for oaks is weak, so species are given distinct names and are not treated as being the same kind of tree.⁵

Drys vox aequivoca est, omnem arborem glandiferam comprehendens, ut ex Dioscoride in praesentia comprehenditur, cum dicat: astringendi vires quercus omnis habet.

Drys is an ambiguous term that encompasses all species of acon-bearing trees, as can be seen from Dioscorides in this chapter, when he states: “All species of oak have astringent properties.”

He also tries to clarify an apparent confusion regarding Dioscorides’s reference to “Phegos” (see above, Dioscorides’ chapter 144). Amato takes this to refer to Fagus (i.e., beech), but it is instead a name used to refer to what is now known as Q. macrolepis or valonia oak, formerly Q. aegilops (esculo in the Latin translation). The name fagus is etymologically identical with beech, and in Latin and English keeps its meaning, which, if it is connected with φαγείν (fagein = "to eat"), refers to the esculent mast. In Greek the name was transferred to the valonia oak (Q. macrolepis).⁶

Cuius Dioscorides, tanquam species fagum et ilicem numerat, quod intelligas velim, viribus, secus autem figura, cum multum inter se differant.

I would like you to know that Dioscorides considers the beech and the holm oak, based on their properties, to be species of the former (i.e., of oak), but not based on their appearance, as they differ greatly from each other.

Amato goes on to discuss the fruit of the beech:

Nam fagus arbor est, quae licet fructum glandi figura et forma similem non habeat, glandiferis tamen annumeratur arboribus, cum fructum ferat viridem aculeatum, intra quem glans dulcissima, triangulari figura includitur, subtili quodam cortice ad rufedi- nem, cum quodam splendore, veluti in castaneis videtur, cooperta, quam glires et mures avidissime comedunt, et a turdis maxime expetitur; qua quoque homines in victu tantum assumpta diu vixisse feruntur.

In fact, the beech is a tree that, although it does not have a fruit similar in appearance and shape to the acorn, is nevertheless included in the number of acorn-bearing trees, since it bears a green prickly fruit, in which is enclosed a very sweet, triangular-shaped nut, surrounded by a thin reddish-colored shell, somewhat shiny, just like that seen on chestnuts; voles and rats eat it very avidly and it is much sought after by thrushes. It is said that men also fed exclusively on it for a long time.

In turn, the holm oak (Q. ilex) has similarities with Q. coccifera or kermes oak, the food plant for the insects used to obtain the red dye called crimson. But, because Q. ilex is larger, according to Amato, it is often confused with the cork oak:

Ilex vero arbor est similis granam ferenti, quae ut diximus procere crescit. Nonnulli tamen illicem maius suber esse crediderunt, sed falso, cum maius suber arbor magnae proceritatis sit, et ex qua cortices virides et sicci, variis rebus accommodati extrahantur. Nam medius cortex, quem viridem appello, colore rubrum, a coriariis Hispaniae pro praeparandis bubulis coriis usurpatur; exteriores vero cortices sive sicci, pro cooperiendis domibus tegularum loco variis in locis accipiuntur, veluti pro conficiendis alvearibus et crepidis ac soccis ornandis.

The holm oak, in fact, is a tree similar to the one that produces the dyer's grain; as we said, it grows tall. Some, however, thought that the holm oak was a larger cork oak, but without reason, since a larger cork oak is a large tree from which dry, unripe bark is extracted, suitable for various things. In fact, the middle bark, red in color, which I call unripe, is removed by the leather tanners of Iberia to tan cattle hides; the outer or dried bark is harvested in various places to cover houses, instead of tiles, as well as to build beehives and manufacture shoes and socks.

Amato remembers, therefore, that the usefulness of this and other trees that produce acorns is not limited to feeding humans and other animals. The different species of oaks actually have healing properties, recognized, in fact, by Galen himself:

Haec vero admodum glandifera est, ut plures aliae arbores, porcis dicatae, ut sunt cerrus, aegilops dicta, aesculus, platyphyllos et roboris varia genera, quae omnia constringendi vires habent, adeo ut Galenus roboris foliis vulnus securi inflictum glutinasset, cum eo tempore nullum aliud ad manus adesset medicamen. Sic enim ille tradit libro sexto De facultatibus simplicium medicamentorum.

This tree, in fact, bears acorns, like many other trees intended for pigs, such as the cerrus (Q. cerris) called aegilops, the aesculus (an oak species with edible acorns?) the platyphyllos (?) and the various species of oak which, without exception, have (blood-vessel) constricting properties, to the point that Galen healed a wound inflicted by a sickle with oak leaves, as at that time there was no other medicine at hand. This is what he says, in fact, in the sixth book De facultatibus simplicium medicamentorum (On the Properties of Simple Medicines).

Oak, in fact, has properties that promote the healing of wounds:

Exsiccandi, astringendique possidet facultatem cum mediocri quadam tepidaque caliditate:

It has desiccating and astringent properties and a somewhat moderate and tepid temperature.

Some parts of the tree and its fruit are, however, more astringent than others, in the same way that some acorn-bearing species are more astringent than others, providing diverse therapeutic applications:

Caeterum plus caeteris eius partibus astringit, quae in trunci cortice membrana subest, tum quae ipsius fructus convestit carnem. Quamobrem ad profluvium muliebre, sangui- nis expuitiones, dysenterias et diuturnos ventris fluxus eam esse credunt accommodam. Valentius autem astringunt fagus et ilex.

Furthermore, more than the other parts of it, what is particularly astringent is the film that is found under the bark of the trunk, such as that which covers the flesh of the fruit itself. For this reason, it is believed to be appropriate for gynecological hemorrhage, blood expectoration, dysentery, and persistent uterine discharge. However, beech and holm oak are more astringent (than the cork oak).

The desiccating properties of these trees are more concentrated in the leaves and fruit:

Quarum plantarum folia tenella illita non instrenue desiccant, nec non vulnera glutinant. Eandem foliis vim habet et fructus roboris, eoque medici nonnulli utuntur ad incipientes atque crescentes phlegmonas.

When rubbed, the rather tender leaves of these plants help dry wounds and heal them. The acorn has the same virtue as the leaves and, for this reason, some doctors use it for incipient and even developing inflammations.

Following the botanical tradition that comes from Theophrastus,⁷ in the enarratio dedicated to galls (1-133), Amato states:

Fert quercus et eius species glandem et gallam.

The oak and its species bear acorns and galls.

Amato distinguishes three species of gall. The first one he refers to comes from Syria and has very peculiar characteristics:

Quae Syria praecipue affertur, par va, rotunda, in longum tendens, crebis foraminibus perforata, atramento scriptorio conficiendo aptissima.

The gall that comes mainly from Syria is small, round, slightly elongated, riddled with many holes, most suitable for making writing ink.

The second type of gall, considered the best of all, has different origins and characteristics:

Nam optima, succosa sit oportet, plena, gravis, styptica, qualis A nconae apud Italos et Castello Albo propria patria nostra apud Hispanos nascitur: unde suaderem, cum galla uti opus fuerit, hac potius recenti quam siccata illa syriaca, uterentur, cum recens omphacitis acerbior et valentior ad omnia, ut diximus, sit.

In fact, the best type of gall should be juicy, full, heavy, astringent, such as the one that grows in Ancona, in Italy, and in Castelo Branco, our homeland in Iberia. Whenever it is necessary to use galls, I would advise you to use this fresh one instead of the dry one from Syria, as the omphacitis gall (a type of small gall) is more acrid and effective, as we said, for everything.

The third type of gall differs from the previous ones mainly in shape:

Est praeterea gallae alia species, magna, circulo veluti corona circundata, caput vituli- num figura repraesentans, non adeo tamen ut altera acerba, ex qua pauperes coronas pro numerandis preculis conficiunt.

There is, moreover, another species of gall, a large one, surrounded by a ring resembling a crown, the shape of which represents the head of a calf, but which is not so acrid as the other, and with which the poor make wreaths to count their prayers.

In order to corroborate the characterization he made of the different types of galls, he evokes the authority of Galen:

De quibus omnibus Galenus libro 7 De facultatibus simplicium medicamentorum memo- riam facit, dicens: galla, quae omphacitis dicitur, admodum acerbum est medicamen, pleraque sui parte essentiae terrenae et frigidae, valde desiccat, repercutitque fluxiones. (...) Esto vero tertii in desiccando, secundi autem in refrigerando, ordinis. A ltera autem galla, flava illa et magna, laxaque, et ipsa dessicat quidem, sed tanto minus, quanto minus acerbae qualitatis est particeps.

Galen mentions them all, when, in the seventh book On the properties of simple medicines, he states: “the gall they call omphacitis is a very bitter medicine, for the most part, with an earthy and cold essence, strongly desiccating and binding. (...) In fact, one could say that it ranks third among those that most desiccate, but second among those that cool. The other gall, however, the yellow one, large and soft in consistency, is also desiccating, but less so as it shares less of the bitter quality.”

Finally, he explains the pharmacological usefulness of galls, resulting from their astringent, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic properties:

Cocta itaque ipsa per se in aqua, aut si magis astringere vis, in vino aliquo austero, ac dein trita, cataplasma est non instrenuum sedi inflammatae, procidentique. Gallae combustae, extinctaeque in aceto aut vino, sanguinis reprimendi facultatem acquirunt.

Therefore, cooked alone in water, or, if you wish to make it more astringent, in dry wine, and then ground, it constitutes an effective poultice for an inflamed and prolapsed anus. Galls set on fire and extinguished with vinegar or wine acquire the ability to stop bleeding.

In the enarratio dedicated to the chestnut (Castanea sativa sp. 1.132), after describing it in very generic terms, Amato explains the origin of one of the names attributed by the Greeks to this fruit:

Castanea echinis inclusa nascitur fructus ubique notus, cuius differentiae plures habentur, quas persequi super vacaneum arbitror, dicitur tamen castanea, glans sardiana a Graecis, quia primum Sardibus urbe Asiae inventa.

The chestnut, a fruit known everywhere, is born enclosed in a spiky shell; we find many varieties of it that I think it unnecessary to enumerate. Be that as it may, the chestnut is called the 'acorn of Sardis' by the Greeks, because it was first discovered in the Asian city of Sardis.

According to Amato, Galen already considered this fruit a very nutritious food:

Haec vero, ut tradit Galenus, Libro de cibis boni et mali succi, si in ventriculo concoquatur, efficaciter nutrit, crassique, nunquam tamen mali succi est.

But this, as Galen reports in his book on foods of good and bad humors, if it is digested in the stomach, it nourishes effectively, and it is a thick humor, but it is never a bad one.

Despite being flatulent, it can be quite tasty, as long as it is properly seasoned:

Flatuosa tamen castanea est, quae sub cineribus cocta flatum amittit, et optimum, licet siccum, praebet nutrimentum, modo vel saccharo, aut pipere, vel sale comedatur.

The chestnut, however, causes flatulence; cooked under ashes, it releases gas and makes a great food, even if dry, as long as it is eaten with sugar, pepper or salt.

When smoke-dried, this fruit has medicinal properties in the treatment of hemorrhages. Furthermore, it is an important means of subsistence, and it can be used to make bread after being ground into flour:

Exsiccatae porro ad fumum castaneae sanguinem e pectore fluentem sistunt, ex quibus variae gentes annonae penuria panem parant, inter quas Ligures praecipue nominandi veniunt, cum id genus pane frequentissime utantur.

Furthermore, when smoke-dried, chestnuts staunch the blood that flows from the chest. With them, in the absence of wheat, various nations make bread; among these, the Ligurians should be mentioned in particular, since they consume that kind of bread abundantly.

Not just history

Emília Oliveira ends her article with a reflection on the various uses of Fagaceae, in ancient and medieval times and in modern times as well. Cork oak, of course, deserves special mention in Portugal:

"Amato Lusitano's comments on the aforementioned acorn-bearing plants, however, make it clear that their usefulness was not limited—as today, in fact, it is not limited—to food and the cure of various ailments. The most obvious example will be that of the cork oak, whose economic contribution is mainly based on the production of the versatile cork. Since ancient times, its suberous bark has been used in the manufacture of shoes, the construction of tenements, the covering of structures, the manufacture of seals (such as wine corks) and in a multitude of other applications.

"The woody nature of these plants is another of their advantages. Because their wood is almost always of very good quality, as was the case in ancient times, they continue to be used in the construction of buildings, in covering surfaces, and in the manufacture of furniture and countless other objects that are part of of everyday life."

You can access Oliveira’s article (in Portuguese) here. It is copiously annotated, including references to works by researchers who are members of IOS (e.g., Antonie Kremer, Paul Manos, Chuck Cannon).

These passages by Dioscorides and Amato Lusitano are another confirmation of the importance of our favorite genus in human culture and history. Thank you Hugo for bringing it our attention!

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¹ E. Oliveira, Do carvalho ao castanheiro: usos e propriedades medicinais de fagáceas nas Enarrationes de Amato Lusitano, in A.M. Lopes Andrade, C. de Miguel Mora, and J. M. Nunes Torrao (eds.). Humanismo e Ciência: Antiguidade e Renascimento, (UA Editora - Universidade de Aveiro; Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra; Annablume, 2015): 373–386. [link]

² Images of the ancient Greek and Latin texts are taken from K.P.J. Sprengel, Pedanii Dioscoridis anazerbei De materia medica libri quinque: ad fidem cadicum manuscriptorum (Royal College of Physicians of London, London, 1839): 136–168. [link]

³ T.A. Osbaldeston, and R.P.A. Wood, Dioscorides De Materia Medica: Being an Herbal with Many Other Medicinal Materials: Written in Greek in the First Century of the Common Era: A New Indexed Version in Modern English. (IBIDIS Press, Johannesburg, 2000). [link]

⁴ Interesting that another famed researcher of Fagaceae, Aimée Camus, also has a first name with the same derivation (aimée = “beloved” in French).

⁵ For more on this issue see R. Cameron, "An Oak by Any Other Name", International Oaks 32, (2021): 35–59. [link]

⁶ J. Sargeaunt,The Trees, Shrubs, and Plants of Virgil (B.H. Blackwell, Oxford, 1920): 43–44. [link]

⁷ For more on Theophrastus' understanding of oaks, see C. Thanos, "Theophrastus on Oaks", Botanika Chronika 18 (2005): 29-36. [link]